Substance use is a growing pandemic that is ravaging the youth at an alarming rate. The study aims to investigate the prevalence and determinants of substance use among youths in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. An institutional-based, cross-sectional study was conducted in Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, sampling a total of 480 undergraduate students. A pretested, semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire was adapted from the literatures. All data collected were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Multi-level data analysis was conducted with a clear progression from univariate, bivariate to multivariate analysis, with p-value set at P<0.05. The lifetime prevalence of substance use was 361 (78.5%). The three commonest substances used were alcohol (98.1%), cannabis (17.5%) and tobacco products (16.3%). The three factors that were significant predictors associated with substance use among the youths include the male sex (OR=2.2; 95% CI=1.02-4.13; P 0.044), age (OR=14.11; 95% CI=1.45-133.88; P 0.022), and peers and roommates’ use of psychoactive substances (OR = 19.58: 95 CI = 4.95-77.50); P 0.000). The prevalence of substance use among the students in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State was high. The significant predictors of high prevalence of substance used were the male sex, age, and peers and roommate’s use of substance. There is a need for appropriate authorities to use the informed targeted intervention through the identified risk factors to stem the tide before it ravages our youth.
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Substance use is a growing pandemic that is ravaging the youth at an alarming rate.
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Aminu MD. Drug and substance abuse among youth in Nigeria: Types, causes and implications on socio-economic development. International Journal of Management, Social Sciences, Peace and Conflict Studies (IJMSSPCS), 2021; 4, 303-318.
Solomon O, Solomon O, Ajiboye A, Adeyemo T. Prevalence, Pattern and Correlates of Substance Use among Adolescents in selected Public Secondary Schools, in Ado Ekiti, Southwest Nigeria. Western Nigeria Journal of Medical Sciences. 2023; 6, 119-32.
It is a global public health issue affecting large parts of the Sub-Saharan Africa, especially Nigeria.
[3]
Solomon O, Solomon O, Ajiboye A, Adeyemo T. Prevalence, Pattern and Correlates of Substance Use among Adolescents in selected Public Secondary Schools, in Ado Ekiti, Southwest Nigeria. Western Nigeria Journal of Medical Sciences. 2023; 6, 119-32.
Substance use disorder refers to the deleterious use of psychoactive substances, including alcohol, tobacco products, drugs, inhalants, and other substances that can be consumed, inhaled, injected, or otherwise absorbed into the body which may have a negative health effect on individuals, families and the society at large.
[3]
Solomon O, Solomon O, Ajiboye A, Adeyemo T. Prevalence, Pattern and Correlates of Substance Use among Adolescents in selected Public Secondary Schools, in Ado Ekiti, Southwest Nigeria. Western Nigeria Journal of Medical Sciences. 2023; 6, 119-32.
Globally, 5.6% of the population, aged 15-64 years consumed a substance at least once in 2016.
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The approximated number of substance users among this age group increased from 240 million in 2011 to 296 million in 2021, representing a 23 per cent increase.
[2]
UNODC, World Drug Report 2023 (United Nations publication, 2023). [Cited 2024 February 1]. Website:
Also, in 2021, an estimated 39.5 million individuals worldwide were suffering from drug use disorders but only 20% out of these received drug treatment.
[2]
UNODC, World Drug Report 2023 (United Nations publication, 2023). [Cited 2024 February 1]. Website:
Young persons are individuals within 10 to 24 years of age. The common health problems associated with this age group are substance abuse, injuries, violence, reproductive health issues, mental health disorders, infectious disease and malnutrition amongst others.
[7]
Moradi-Lakeh M, El Bcheraoui C, Tuffaha M, Daoud F, Al Saeedi M, Basulaiman M et al. The health of Saudi youths: current challenges and future opportunities. BMC Fam Pract. 2016; 17, 26.
Substance use is directly or indirectly linked with other health issues as a result of inhibiting self-control and increasing risky behaviours which may lead to injuries, violence, unprotected sex, rape, other reproductive health issues and mental health disorders among others.
[7]
Moradi-Lakeh M, El Bcheraoui C, Tuffaha M, Daoud F, Al Saeedi M, Basulaiman M et al. The health of Saudi youths: current challenges and future opportunities. BMC Fam Pract. 2016; 17, 26.
Early onset of substance use is associated with higher risks of developing dependence and other problems during adult life, and people of younger ages are disproportionately affected by substance use compared with people of older ages.
[2]
UNODC, World Drug Report 2023 (United Nations publication, 2023). [Cited 2024 February 1]. Website:
Aguocha CM, & Nwefoh E. Prevalence and correlates of substance use among undergraduates in a developing country. African health sciences, 2021; 21, 875–883.
The overall prevalence of substance use in sub-Saharan Africa was 41.6%, (ranging from 8.8% to 55.5%) the highest being in Central Africa at 55.5%.
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Olawole-Isaac A, Ogundipe O, Amoo E O, Adeloye D. Substance use among adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. S. Afr. j. child health, 2018; 12, 79-84.
A study in Sudan found the overall prevalence of substance use to be 31%.
[11]
Osman T, Victor C, Abdulmoneim A, Mohammed H, Abdalla F, Ahmed A et al. Epidemiology of Substance Use among University Students in Sudan. Journal of addiction, 2016; 2016; 2476164.
The commonest substance used was tobacco followed by cannabis and alcohol while the most common reason for initiating substance use was curiosity.
[11]
Osman T, Victor C, Abdulmoneim A, Mohammed H, Abdalla F, Ahmed A et al. Epidemiology of Substance Use among University Students in Sudan. Journal of addiction, 2016; 2016; 2476164.
In Ethiopia, a prevalence of 20–40% and 20.9% of drug abuse was reported among students and youths, respectively.
[12]
Jatau AI, Sha'aban A, Gulma KA, Shitu Z, Khalid GM, Isa A. et al. The Burden of Drug Abuse in Nigeria: A Scoping Review of Epidemiological Studies and Drug Laws. Public Health Rev. 2021; 42: 1603960.
In Nigeria, the situation is equally disturbing, according to a United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) drug use survey conducted in 2018, 1 in 7 persons aged 15-64 years had used a drug (other than tobacco and alcohol) in the previous yearwith the prevalence of any drug use estimated at 14.4% and corresponding to 14.3 million people.
[13]
United Nations Office On Drugs And Crime (UNODC) Drug Use In Nigeria Executive Summary 2018. [Cited 2023 May 1].
Among undergraduate students, majority of who fall into the category of young persons, the problem of psychoactive substance use is even more alarming than what was reported among the general populace. For example, in South-western Nigeria, about 58.4 to 65% of undergraduates had used psychoactive substances at least once in their lifetime while 15.4% reported current use.
[9]
Aguocha CM, & Nwefoh E. Prevalence and correlates of substance use among undergraduates in a developing country. African health sciences, 2021; 21, 875–883.
In another study conducted in Ibadan, South-western Nigeria, the abuse of Indian hemp was reported to have gotten to an epidemic level and was a potential cause of incomplete or even halted academic achievements (drop out).
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Haruna MO, Namadi MM, Dankrah BH, Zamfara MI. & Dangiwa AL. Substance Abuse Among Youths in Kashere Town: A Theoretical And Empirical Analysis. International Journal of Development and Management Review (INJODEMAR), 2018; 13, 102-203.
An additional evaluation of the prevalence of substance use among students of higher institution was conducted in Benue State, North Central Nigeria. It reported the prevalence as 46.6% but did not involve the patterns and determinants.
[15]
Anna O. An Evaluation of the Prevalence of Substance Abuse among Students of Higher Education Institutions in Benue State, North- Central Nigeria: Implications for Counseling International Journal of Psychological Studies, 2019; 11, 1918-7211.
A similar research conducted in Abeokuta, another part of South-western Nigeria, looked at patterns of drug use alone but the determinants were not studied.
[16]
Onofa LU, Adamson T, Ighoroje M and Majekodunmi M. Prevalence and Patterns of Drug Abuse among Students of Tertiary Institutions in Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria Int J Psychiatry 2016; 1, 1-6.
Another research conducted in Afe Babalola University, Ado-Ekiti, Ekiti State, South western Nigeria reported the prevalence, patterns and reasons for use of psychoactive substances
[17]
Durowade KA, Elegbede OE, Pius-Imue GB, Omeiza A, Bello M, Mark-Uchendu C et al. Substance Use: Prevalence, Pattern and Risk Factors among Undergraduate Students in a Tertiary Institution in Southwest Nigeria Journal of Community Medicine and Primary Health Care, 2021; 33, 83-99.
. However, it was conducted in a private tertiary institution and might not paint a complete picture of the prevalence of substance use among undergraduate students.
Students in higher institutions are some of the most susceptible to drug use amongst the different young persons in Nigeria. Majority of them live outside the watch of their parents/guardians and have access to social media which expose them to a lot of vices.
[18]
Odejide AO. Status of drug use/abuse in Africa: a review International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2015; 4, 87-102.
Mustafa-Shaibu M and Igbinoba-Ojo IO. Prevalence of Drug Abuse among Student in the University of Benin, Nigeria. University of Nigeria Journal of Political Economy. 2022; 12, 276-307.
. Theoretical Framework; Substance use among youths has become a health challenge globally, and the interplay of several factors like biological factors, psychological factors and social factors either predispose the individual or group of youths to the use, initiate use or perpetuate the use
[1]
Aminu MD. Drug and substance abuse among youth in Nigeria: Types, causes and implications on socio-economic development. International Journal of Management, Social Sciences, Peace and Conflict Studies (IJMSSPCS), 2021; 4, 303-318.
Solomon O, Solomon O, Ajiboye A, Adeyemo T. Prevalence, Pattern and Correlates of Substance Use among Adolescents in selected Public Secondary Schools, in Ado Ekiti, Southwest Nigeria. Western Nigeria Journal of Medical Sciences. 2023; 6, 119-32.
. Frequent use of these substances leads to; a compulsive seeking and take these substances, with liitle or no control of intake, and the development of the negative effect of substance use.
[4]
Centre for disease control and prevention. Substance use. [Cited 2023 May 1].
Aguocha CM, & Nwefoh E. Prevalence and correlates of substance use among undergraduates in a developing country. African health sciences, 2021; 21, 875–883.
. The study therefore, aims to determine the prevalence and determinants of substance use among youths in a public tertiary institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Areas
The study was conducted in Federal Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. The Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti is one of the second-generation Polytechnics established in 1979. The polytechnic runs Ordinary National Diploma (OND), Higher National Diploma (HND), Certificate and Professional programmes.
[20]
Federal Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. [Cited 2023 May 1].
It has over 10,000 students with a total Staff workforce of about 2,000, which is made up of Teaching, Non-Teaching, Technical/Technologist and Junior Cadre Staff. There are five schools: Business Studies, Engineering, Environmental studies, Science and computer studies, School of Agriculture and Agricultural technology, with 29 departments in total.
[20]
Federal Polytechnic, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State, Nigeria. [Cited 2023 May 1].
The study was conducted using a descriptive, and cross-sectional study design.
2.3 Study Population
The study population consisted of selected undergraduates in the Federal Polytechnic, Ado-Ekiti. All students, 18 years and above, who gave informed consent were included in the study, while part-time students and all chronically ill students were excluded.
2.4. Sample Size Determination
The sample size was determined using the Leslie Fisher’s formula for calculation of single proportions for populations >10,000
Zα is the standard normal deviate for 95% confidence interval = 1.96
p is the prevalence of substance use from a previous study
[21]
Bakare AT, Isah BA. Psychoactive substances use among in-patients in a Nigerian neuropsychiatric hospital: prevalence, pattern and presentation. MOJ Addict Med Ther. 2016; 2, 18‒22.
q is the complementary probability = 1-p =1-0.692=0.308
d is the margin of error = 5% = 0.05, n=328 approximately to the nearest units.
Using a non-response rate of 20%, 20/100×328=65.6
n (sample size) = 328+65.6=393.6, approximated to 394, however, 480 samples were taken.
2.5. Sampling Technique
Multistage (4-staged) sampling technique was used to select the eligible respondents. In the first Stage, a list of all the schools (faculties) in the Polytechnic (Business Studies, Engineering, Environmental studies, Science and Computer Studies, Agriculture and Agricultural Technology) was obtained. Three of the five schools were selected, using simple random sampling method (balloting): Schools of Business, Science and Computer Studies, and Engineering were selected. In the second stage a list of all the Departments in the chosen schools was obtained and two departments were selected from each school/faculty using simple random sampling. In the third stage, all levels in each chosen department were used. In the last stage, systematic sampling method was used to select respondents from the selected departments. The questionnaires were distributed equally across all the selected departments. The list of students in each of the selected department served as the sample frame. The sample interval was obtained by dividing the total number of students in all the levels in each department (sampling frame) by the number of questionnaires that were allocated to that department (sampling size). Using the sampling interval that was obtained, the first participant in each of the departments was obtained using simple random sampling technique (balloting). Thereafter, subsequent respondents were selected using the pre-determined sampling interval.
2.6. Data Collection Method
The data were collected (from May to July 2023) using a semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire, which was adapted from the World Health Organization (WHO)/ United Nations Fund for Drug Abuse Control student drug use questionnaire.
[22]
World Health Organization, Geneva 1980. A Methodology for student drug survey. [Cited 2023 May 1].
Babalola EO, Akinhanmi A, Ogunwale A. Who Guards the Guards: Drug Use Pattern Among Medical Students in a Nigerian University. Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research, 2014; 43, 397-403.
The questionnaire consisted of 22 items comprising 6 items on demographic variables, 14 items (on substance use, type of substance use, pattern and frequency, age at first use of drug, other associated factors and 2 items on self-honesty. Data were collected during school hours over a period of three months. The questionnaire was pre-tested among clinical medical students of Ekiti State University; another public tertiary institution in the State and corrections were made as appropriate.
2.7. Data Management and Analysis
All data collected were manually checked for errors and analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25. Univariate, bivariate and multivariate analysis were done and data were presented using frequency tables, percentages and charts. Relationships between prevalence and determinants of substance use (socio-demographic, family and psychological factors) were determined using chi-square and binary logistic regression tests. Level of significance was set at p value of less than 0.05.
2.8. Ethical Considerations
Research approval was obtained from institutions’ Ethics and Research Committee (Protocol number: EKSUTH/A67/2023/05/002). Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Deans and HODs of the selected schools and departments. A written informed consent was obtained from each of the respondents. Participation in the study was voluntary, the respondents were assured of confidentiality and data were stored in locked cabinets, assessable to the researchers alone.
3. Results
Four hundred and eighty questionnaires were distributed and 460 were found analyzable giving a response rate of 95.8%.
Table 1 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. Majority 386 (83.9%) of the respondents were between the ages of 15-24 years with a mean age of 21.8±2.6 years. There were 238 (51.7%) males, 402 (87.4%) of the respondents were Christians and 388 (84.3%) were of Yoruba ethnicity. Two hundred and four (44.4%) of their fathers and 190 (41.3%) of their mothers had tertiary education.
Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents.
Socio-demographic Characteristics
Frequency n=460
Percentage
Age (years)
15-19
110
23.9
20-24
276
60.0
25-30
74
16.1
Sex
Male
238
51.7
Female
222
48.3
Religion
Christianity
402
87.4
Islam
48
10.4
Traditional
10
2.2
Tribe
Yoruba
388
84.3
Igbo
46
10.0
Others
26
5.7
Father’s Highest Level of Education
No Formal Education
51
11.1
Primary
8
1.7
Secondary
197
42.8
Tertiary
204
44.4
Mother’s Highest Level of Education
No Formal Education
43
9.3
Primary
44
9.6
Secondary
183
39.8
Tertiary
190
41.3
Table 2 reveals the types of psychoactive substances used among the respondents (n=361 (78.5%)). The three commonest substances used were alcohol (98.1%), cannabis (17.5%) and tobacco products (16.3%).
Table 2. Types of psychoactive substances used among respondents (n=361).
Psychoactive substance
Yes (%)
No (%)
Alcohol
354 (98.1)
7 (1.9)
Cannabis
63 (17.5)
298 (82.5)
Tobacco products
59 (16.3)
302 (83.7)
Opium and other opiates
53 (14.7)
308 (85.3)
Substances such as gutter water, monkey tail and bana water
13 (3.6)
348 (96.4)
Cocaine
9 (2.5)
352 (97.5)
Sedatives
8 (2.2)
353 (97.8)
Non-tobacco smoked substances
4 (1.1)
357 (98.9)
Amphetamine or other stimulants
3 (0.8)
358 (99.2)
Table 3 shows the relationship between the socio-demographic characteristics and the prevalence of substance use among the respondents. The prevalence (lifetime) of psychoactive substance use among the respondents was 78.5% (361). everal factors were statistically significant (P<0.05) which include male sex (P 0.000), age (P 0.003), religion (P 0.006), and father’s educational status (P 0.002). Other socio-demographic factors were not statistically significant.
Table 4 shows the relationship between family and friend-related factors and prevalence of substance use among respondents. Almost all the factors: daddy (P 0.000) and siblings drink alcohol (P 0.002), daddy (P 0.017) and siblings smoke (P 0.039), peers and roommates’ use substance (P 0.000), parents quarreling (P 0.024) and separations (P 0.006) were significantly associated with the prevalence of substance use among the respondents.
Table 5 shows the relationship between the psychological factors influencing substance use and the prevalence of substance use among respondents. All the psychological factors had significant relationships with the prevalence of substance use among the respondents; low self-esteem (P 0.000), lack of direction and purpose in life (P 0.004), and shyness (P 0.003).
Table 6 reveals the binary logistic regression analysis. Only three factors: the male sex, age (20-24 year age group), and peers and roommates’ use of psychoactive substances were significantly associated with prevalence of substance use among the respondents. Respondents who were males were 2.2 times more likely to have used substances than those who were females (OR=2.2; 95% CI=1.02-4.13; P 0.044). Respondents who were aged 20-24 years were 14 times more likely to have used substances than those who were aged 25-30 years (OR=14.11; 95% CI=1.45-133.88; P 0.022). Respondents who had peers and roommates using substances were 19.6 times more likely to have used substances than those whose peers and roommates do not use substances (OR = 19.58: 95 CI = 4.95-77.50); P 0.000).
Table 3. Relationship between the socio-demographic characteristics and the prevalence of substance use among respondents.
Socio-demographic characteristics
Prevalence of psychoactive substance use
Χ2/ p-value
Use substance (n=361)
Does not use Substance (n=99)
Sex
Male
212 (89.1%)
26 (10.9%)
32.79
Female
149 (67.1%)
73 (32.9%)
.000*
Age group (years)
15-19
118 (70.7%)
49 (29.3%)
10.29
20-24
228 (83.5%)
45 (16.5%)
.003*
25-30
15 (75.0%)
5 (25.0%)
Tribe
Yoruba
302 (77.8%)
86 (22.2%)
2.50
Igbo
40 (83.5%)
6 (16.5%)
.281
Others
19 (73.1%)
7 (26.9%)
Religion
Christian
321 (79.9%)
81 (20.1%)
10.45
Islam
30 (62.5%)
18 (37.5%)
.006*
Traditional
10 (100.0%)
0 (0.0%)
Others
2 (66.7%)
1 (33.3%)
Father’s education
No formal
45 (88.2%)
6 (11.8%)
16.97
Primary
8 (100.0%)
0 (0.0%)
.002*
Secondary
138 (70.1%)
59 (29.9%)
Tertiary
170 (83.3%)
34 (16.7%)
Mother’s education
No formal
35 (88.4%)
6 (11.8%)
6.28
Primary
33 (75.0%)
11 (25.0%)
.179
Secondary
136 (74.5%)
47 (25.7%)
Tertiary
143 (80.3%)
35 (19.7%)
*Statistically significant
Table 4. Relationship between family and friend related factors and prevalence of substance use among respondents.
Family and friends related factors
Prevalence of substance use
χ2/ p-value
Use substance (n=361)
Does not use (n=99)
Daddy drinks alcohol
82 (94.3%)
5 (5.7%)
15.80
Daddy does not drink alcohol
279 (74.8%)
94 (25.2%)
.000*
Peers and roommate use substance
141 (96.6%)
5 (3.4%)
41.47
Peers and roommate don’t use substance
220 (70.1%)
94 (29.9%)
.000*
Siblings drink alcohol
46 (95.8%)
2 (4.2%)
9.56
Siblings don’t drink alcohol
315 (76.5%)
97 (23.5%)
.002*
Daddy smokes
20 (100.0%)
0 (0.0%)
5.73
Daddy does not smoke
341 (77.5%)
99 (22.5%)
.017*
Siblings smokes
15 (100.0%)
0 (0.0%)
4.25
Siblings smokes
346 (77.8%)
99 (22.2%)
.039*
Parents quarrel a lot
37 (92.5%)
3 (7.5%)
5.10
Parents don’t quarrel a lot
326 (77.1%)
96 (22.9%)
.024*
Parents are too strict
59 (88.1%)
8 (11.9%)
4.26
Parents are not too strict
302 (76.8%)
91 (23.2%)
.052
Parents are separated
33 (97.1%)
1 (2.9%)
7.50
Parents are not separated
328 (77.0%)
98 (33.0%)
.006*
Parents in conflict with the law
3 (100.0%)
0 (0.0%)
0.828
Parents not in conflict with the law
358 (78.3%)
99 (21.7%)
.363
*Statistically significant
Table 5. Relationship between psychological factors and prevalence of substance use among respondents.
Psychological factors
Prevalence of substance use
χ2/p-value
Use substance (n=361)
Does not use substance (n=99)
Has low self esteem
49 (100.0%)
0 (0.0%)
13.65
Does not have low self esteem
312 (75.9%)
99 (24.1%)
0.000*
Lacks direction and purpose
32 (100.0%)
0 (0.0%)
8.11
Does not lack direction and purpose
329 (76.9%)
99 (23.1%)
0.000*
A shy person
32 (100.0%)
0 (0.0%)
9.43
Not a shy person
329 (76.5%)
99 (23.1%)
0.000*
*Statistically significant
Table 6. Binary logistic regression analysis of the predictors associated of Substance use among Youth in Ekiti State University, Ado Ekiti, Ekiti State.
Factors
Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% Confidence Interval)
P-Value
Sex
Female
1
Male
2.20 (1.02-4.13)
0.044*
Age group (years)
15-19
13.30 (1.90-178.37)
0.052
20-24
14.11 (1.45-133.88)
0.022*
25-30
1
Religion
Christian
3.73 (0.69-20.17)
0.128
Islam
1.11 (0.14-8.65)
0.420
Traditional
1
Mother’s occupation
Artisan
0.73 (0.06-8.34)
0.801
Trader
1.57 (0.16-14.95)
0.697
Civil servant
1.82 (0.17-19.93)
0.621
Professional
0.43 (0.02-10.93)
0.501
Unemployed
0.83 (0.53-1.63)
0.793
Others
1
Father’s education
No formal
1
Primary
0.31 (0.10-9.54)
0.599
Secondary
1.07 (0.70-9.73)
0.394
Tertiary
3.62 (0.30-48.03)
0.340
Daddy drinks alcohol
4.65 (0.88-24.53)
0.070
Daddy does not drink alcohol
1
Daddy smokes
0.29 (0.30-48.84)
0.354
Daddy does not smoke
1
Siblings drink alcohol
0.60 (0.09-4.19)
0.787
Siblings don’t drink alcohol
1
Siblings smokes
1.92 (0.52-6.61)
0.424
Siblings does not smokes
1
Parents quarrel a lot
0.36 (0.41-5.62)
0.801
Parents don’t quarrel a lot
1
Parents were separated
7.07 (0.72-69.74)
0.094
Parents were not separated
1
Peers and roommate use substance
19.58 (4.95-77.50)
0.000*
Peers and roommate don’t use substance
1
Has low self esteem
0.66 (2.85-1.52)
0.326
Does not have low self esteem
1
Lacks direction and purpose
0.91 (0.95-7.50)
0.076
Does not lack direction and purpose
1
A shy person
0.58 (0.05-4.52)
0.621
Not a shy person
1
*Statistically significant
4. Discussion
The period of being a youth remains a challenging time in human development and they are highly vulnerable to adopting risky behaviors which include substance use. This study attempted to investigate the prevalence and predictors of substance use among youth in Ekiti, state Nigeria.
In this study, the lifetime prevalence of substance use among the youth in Ekiti state was 78%. This finding was similar to studies’ reports in Lagos, Nigeria (3.8–85.7%),
[24]
Oshodi OY, Aina OF, Onajole AT. Substance use among secondary school students in an urban setting in Nigeria: prevalence and associated factors associated factors Afr J Psychiatry 2010; 13, 52-57.
also among four private tertiary institutions in Southwest Nigeria (81%)
[25]
Adekeye OA, Adeusi SO, Chenube OO, Ahmadu FO and Sholarin, MA. Assessment of Alcohol and Substance Use among Undergraduates in Selected Private Universities in Southwest Nigeria IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 2015; 20, 1-7.
McDermott MJ, Drescher CF, Smitherman TA, Tull MT, Heiden L, Damon JD et al. Prevalence and Sociodemographic Correlates of Lifetime Substance Use among a Rural and Diverse Sample of Adolescents. Substance Abuse. 2013; 34, 371-380.
The increasing prevalence of substance use might be due to the fact that a lot of these substances are becoming more readily available and relatively much easy to access than before, thereby increasing the range of individuals exposed.
[18]
Odejide AO. Status of drug use/abuse in Africa: a review International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 2015; 4, 87-102.
Adekeye OA, Adeusi SO, Chenube OO, Ahmadu FO and Sholarin, MA. Assessment of Alcohol and Substance Use among Undergraduates in Selected Private Universities in Southwest Nigeria IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 2015; 20, 1-7.
McDermott MJ, Drescher CF, Smitherman TA, Tull MT, Heiden L, Damon JD et al. Prevalence and Sociodemographic Correlates of Lifetime Substance Use among a Rural and Diverse Sample of Adolescents. Substance Abuse. 2013; 34, 371-380.
Idowu A, Aremu AO, Akanbi IM, Eseigbe G, Adewale V, Awubite L, Adebayo O, Arisa D, Adetona B, Olaniyan A, Olafisoye E, Olorunshola O, Eyitayo J, Ogunlana O, Aboloye O, Mayor A, Olatunde E. Prevalence, pattern and determinants of substance abuse among youths in a rural community of Osun State, Southwest Nigeria. Afr Health Sci. 2023 Dec; 23(4): 563-574.
Furthermore increasing ignorance with aggressive advertisement of some substance have fuelled the increased usage of substance in Mississippi and Nigeria.
[25]
Adekeye OA, Adeusi SO, Chenube OO, Ahmadu FO and Sholarin, MA. Assessment of Alcohol and Substance Use among Undergraduates in Selected Private Universities in Southwest Nigeria IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 2015; 20, 1-7.
McDermott MJ, Drescher CF, Smitherman TA, Tull MT, Heiden L, Damon JD et al. Prevalence and Sociodemographic Correlates of Lifetime Substance Use among a Rural and Diverse Sample of Adolescents. Substance Abuse. 2013; 34, 371-380.
The studies were similar because similar university students were used, and similar study design methods were used also. In contrast to this study, other studies revealed a lower prevalence than that reported in this study in Sudan (31%),
[11]
Osman T, Victor C, Abdulmoneim A, Mohammed H, Abdalla F, Ahmed A et al. Epidemiology of Substance Use among University Students in Sudan. Journal of addiction, 2016; 2016; 2476164.
Solomon O, Solomon O, Ajiboye A, Adeyemo T. Prevalence, Pattern and Correlates of Substance Use among Adolescents in selected Public Secondary Schools, in Ado Ekiti, Southwest Nigeria. Western Nigeria Journal of Medical Sciences. 2023; 6, 119-32.
The variation might be due to the differences in study areas, high non-response rate and sample size. Most of the respondents in other studies were younger, in the secondary schools where substance use was just beginning to be initiated compared to university students who may have initiated it earlier. The discrepancies could also be due to the differences in the study population and interest of measure.
The three most common substances used were alcohol, cannabis and tobacco products. This findings are comparable to a study among private university students by Durowade et al which reveals alcohol with the highest prevalence (44.5%).
[17]
Durowade KA, Elegbede OE, Pius-Imue GB, Omeiza A, Bello M, Mark-Uchendu C et al. Substance Use: Prevalence, Pattern and Risk Factors among Undergraduate Students in a Tertiary Institution in Southwest Nigeria Journal of Community Medicine and Primary Health Care, 2021; 33, 83-99.
Adekeye OA, Adeusi SO, Chenube OO, Ahmadu FO and Sholarin, MA. Assessment of Alcohol and Substance Use among Undergraduates in Selected Private Universities in Southwest Nigeria IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 2015; 20, 1-7.
revealed among undergraduate students smoking and alcohol were the major substance used, also a study by Aziz et al
[29]
Azi EI, Maduka O. Substance use and associated factors among junior students in a public secondary school in an urban local government area in Rivers State, Nigeria. Niger J Med 2021; 30, 532-7.
also revealed that among public secondary schools students alcohol is the most prevalent substance used. Alcohol is commonly available with little or no restriction due to their age group and commons in different form increasing its accessibility to the youth. In contrast to this study Oshodi et al
[24]
Oshodi OY, Aina OF, Onajole AT. Substance use among secondary school students in an urban setting in Nigeria: prevalence and associated factors associated factors Afr J Psychiatry 2010; 13, 52-57.
Olawole-Isaac A, Ogundipe O, Amoo E O, Adeloye D. Substance use among adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. S. Afr. j. child health, 2018; 12, 79-84.
revealed caffeine containing product like kolanut and coffee were the most commonly abused substance, the respondents from this two studies were largely adolescent in secondary school who may have some restriction to alcohol due to their age.
The predictors of high prevalence of substance use for this study were the male sex, age, and peers and roommates’ use of substance. In this study, males were 2.2 times more likely to experience substance use than the female sex. This could be accounted for due to the outgoing nature of the male folks, they are more adventurous and more eager to try new things than the female folks. Also, females are culturally forbidden from substance use (smoking, drinking alcohol and other vices) but for males it is regarded as part of growing up. Similarly, in a study in Rivers state, Nigeria among junior students in a public secondary school, it was reported that male students experienced more substance use than female students.
[29]
Azi EI, Maduka O. Substance use and associated factors among junior students in a public secondary school in an urban local government area in Rivers State, Nigeria. Niger J Med 2021; 30, 532-7.
Also, in a similar work in Lagos the male gender had a higher prevalence rates than their female counterparts.
[24]
Oshodi OY, Aina OF, Onajole AT. Substance use among secondary school students in an urban setting in Nigeria: prevalence and associated factors associated factors Afr J Psychiatry 2010; 13, 52-57.
The reason for the similar study findings may be due to similar study site (sub-Sahara African), study design, and sample size. Conversely, in contrast to this study, there was no relationship between respondent sex and prevalence of substance use in studies done in Abia state, Nigeria and Ethiopia.
[28]
Bereket D, Yirdaw M, Jemal E. Determinants of cigarette smoking among adolescents in Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study Tob. Induc. Dis. 2019; 17, 62
The difference might have resulted because the study population were commercial drivers compared to the university students in this study. Similarly, the sample size was higher in this study and finally, the study in Ethiopia study emphasized on only cigarette smoking alone unlike substance use generally in this study. Equally, in this study, those between 15 year and 24 years of age were more likely to experience substance use compared to older age (above 25-30 years of age). Similarly, a study in Ethiopia
[28]
Bereket D, Yirdaw M, Jemal E. Determinants of cigarette smoking among adolescents in Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study Tob. Induc. Dis. 2019; 17, 62
revealed a higher age group (above 18 yrs) which was associated with increase substance use. Another study in Ethiopia showed that the prevalence of drug abuse is high among age 20-24 yrs of age.
[31]
Kassew T, Tarekegn GE, Alamneh TS, Kassa SF, Liyew B and Terefe B. The prevalence and determinant factors of substance use among the youth in Ethiopia: A multilevel analysis of Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey. Front. Psychiatry, 2023: 14, 1096863.
This may have occurred because the younger population has a higher rate of substance use (with higher level of curiosity, peer pressure and adventurous lifestyle, with early initiation largely due to early exposure). Furthermore, the similarity in the study accounted for, is due to the similar study design, and in one of the study the respondent ages were similar while in another they were younger.
However, in contrast, a study in River state Nigeria,
[29]
Azi EI, Maduka O. Substance use and associated factors among junior students in a public secondary school in an urban local government area in Rivers State, Nigeria. Niger J Med 2021; 30, 532-7.
showed no significant relationship between age group and prevalence of substance use,
[29]
Azi EI, Maduka O. Substance use and associated factors among junior students in a public secondary school in an urban local government area in Rivers State, Nigeria. Niger J Med 2021; 30, 532-7.
this difference might be accounted for due to the difference in the study population (junior secondary student compared to undergraduate students).
In this study, peers and roommates’ use of substance was significantly associated with a higher prevalence of substance use. Friends and roommates are people who can shape the life of any individual at any stage of life especially at adolescence, teenage and youth when most people initiate substance use. Hence, having a peer involved in substance use can motivate or stimulate the use of substance. Similar result to our study, was observed in a study in Ethiopia
[28]
Bereket D, Yirdaw M, Jemal E. Determinants of cigarette smoking among adolescents in Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study Tob. Induc. Dis. 2019; 17, 62
which revealed that the students having friends who smoke were four times at higher risk of substance use than individuals with friends or peers who do not smoke or use substance.
[28]
Bereket D, Yirdaw M, Jemal E. Determinants of cigarette smoking among adolescents in Ethiopia: A cross-sectional study Tob. Induc. Dis. 2019; 17, 62
These two studies were both institution-based, and cross-sectional study designed with similar sample size. On the other hand, a study among four private tertiary institutions in Southwest Nigeria
[25]
Adekeye OA, Adeusi SO, Chenube OO, Ahmadu FO and Sholarin, MA. Assessment of Alcohol and Substance Use among Undergraduates in Selected Private Universities in Southwest Nigeria IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 2015; 20, 1-7.
revealed that there is no significant relationship between peer and roommates’ using substance and a higher prevalence of substance use.
[25]
Adekeye OA, Adeusi SO, Chenube OO, Ahmadu FO and Sholarin, MA. Assessment of Alcohol and Substance Use among Undergraduates in Selected Private Universities in Southwest Nigeria IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 2015; 20, 1-7.
The difference may have occurred due to the fact that private universities were used rather than public. Also, four different study site were used but only one site was used in this study and the sample size in this study was larger.
Study limitation: The study design used was a cross-sectional design which does not allow causal associations to be made, hence further longitudinal research may be needed. Social desirability bias may be present hence we ensure the questionnaire was distributed by self-administering it and encouraged the respondents to be as honest as possible to prevent under-reporting or over-reporting.
5. Conclusions
This prevalence of substance use among the students of a tertiary institution in Ekiti State was high. The three most common substances used were alcohol, cannabis and tobacco products. The significant predictors of prevalence of substance use were the male sex, age, peers and roommates’ use of substance.
Recommendation: There is a need by appropriate authorities to use the informed, targeted intervention through identified risk factors (male and youth) to stem the tide before it ravages our youths.
Abbreviations
CI
Confidence Interval
EKSUTH
Ekiti State University Teaching Hospital
HND
Higher National Diploma
HOD
Head of Department
OND
Ordinary National Diploma
OR
Odd Ratio
SPSS
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
UNODC
United Nation Office on Drug and Crime
WHO
World Health Organization
Author Contributions
Paul Oladapo Ajayi: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing
Eyitope Oluseyi Amu: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing
Oluremi Olayinka Solomon: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Olawole-Isaac A, Ogundipe O, Amoo E O, Adeloye D. Substance use among adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. S. Afr. j. child health, 2018; 12, 79-84.
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Durowade KA, Elegbede OE, Pius-Imue GB, Omeiza A, Bello M, Mark-Uchendu C et al. Substance Use: Prevalence, Pattern and Risk Factors among Undergraduate Students in a Tertiary Institution in Southwest Nigeria Journal of Community Medicine and Primary Health Care, 2021; 33, 83-99.
Mustafa-Shaibu M and Igbinoba-Ojo IO. Prevalence of Drug Abuse among Student in the University of Benin, Nigeria. University of Nigeria Journal of Political Economy. 2022; 12, 276-307.
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Babalola EO, Akinhanmi A, Ogunwale A. Who Guards the Guards: Drug Use Pattern Among Medical Students in a Nigerian University. Annals of Medical and Health Sciences Research, 2014; 43, 397-403.
Oshodi OY, Aina OF, Onajole AT. Substance use among secondary school students in an urban setting in Nigeria: prevalence and associated factors associated factors Afr J Psychiatry 2010; 13, 52-57.
Adekeye OA, Adeusi SO, Chenube OO, Ahmadu FO and Sholarin, MA. Assessment of Alcohol and Substance Use among Undergraduates in Selected Private Universities in Southwest Nigeria IOSR Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS), 2015; 20, 1-7.
McDermott MJ, Drescher CF, Smitherman TA, Tull MT, Heiden L, Damon JD et al. Prevalence and Sociodemographic Correlates of Lifetime Substance Use among a Rural and Diverse Sample of Adolescents. Substance Abuse. 2013; 34, 371-380.
Idowu A, Aremu AO, Akanbi IM, Eseigbe G, Adewale V, Awubite L, Adebayo O, Arisa D, Adetona B, Olaniyan A, Olafisoye E, Olorunshola O, Eyitayo J, Ogunlana O, Aboloye O, Mayor A, Olatunde E. Prevalence, pattern and determinants of substance abuse among youths in a rural community of Osun State, Southwest Nigeria. Afr Health Sci. 2023 Dec; 23(4): 563-574.
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Ajayi, P. O., Amu, E. O., Solomon, O. O. (2026). Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. European Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(3), 34-44. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
Ajayi, P. O.; Amu, E. O.; Solomon, O. O. Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Eur. J. Prev. Med.2026, 14(3), 34-44. doi: 10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
Ajayi PO, Amu EO, Solomon OO. Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Eur J Prev Med. 2026;14(3):34-44. doi: 10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
@article{10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11,
author = {Paul Oladapo Ajayi and Eyitope Oluseyi Amu and Oluremi Olayinka Solomon},
title = {Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria},
journal = {European Journal of Preventive Medicine},
volume = {14},
number = {3},
pages = {34-44},
doi = {10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ejpm.20261403.11},
abstract = {Substance use is a growing pandemic that is ravaging the youth at an alarming rate. The study aims to investigate the prevalence and determinants of substance use among youths in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. An institutional-based, cross-sectional study was conducted in Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, sampling a total of 480 undergraduate students. A pretested, semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire was adapted from the literatures. All data collected were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Multi-level data analysis was conducted with a clear progression from univariate, bivariate to multivariate analysis, with p-value set at PP 0.044), age (OR=14.11; 95% CI=1.45-133.88; P 0.022), and peers and roommates’ use of psychoactive substances (OR = 19.58: 95 CI = 4.95-77.50); P 0.000). The prevalence of substance use among the students in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State was high. The significant predictors of high prevalence of substance used were the male sex, age, and peers and roommate’s use of substance. There is a need for appropriate authorities to use the informed targeted intervention through the identified risk factors to stem the tide before it ravages our youth.},
year = {2026}
}
TY - JOUR
T1 - Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria
AU - Paul Oladapo Ajayi
AU - Eyitope Oluseyi Amu
AU - Oluremi Olayinka Solomon
Y1 - 2026/06/26
PY - 2026
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
DO - 10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
T2 - European Journal of Preventive Medicine
JF - European Journal of Preventive Medicine
JO - European Journal of Preventive Medicine
SP - 34
EP - 44
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2330-8230
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
AB - Substance use is a growing pandemic that is ravaging the youth at an alarming rate. The study aims to investigate the prevalence and determinants of substance use among youths in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. An institutional-based, cross-sectional study was conducted in Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, sampling a total of 480 undergraduate students. A pretested, semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire was adapted from the literatures. All data collected were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Multi-level data analysis was conducted with a clear progression from univariate, bivariate to multivariate analysis, with p-value set at PP 0.044), age (OR=14.11; 95% CI=1.45-133.88; P 0.022), and peers and roommates’ use of psychoactive substances (OR = 19.58: 95 CI = 4.95-77.50); P 0.000). The prevalence of substance use among the students in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State was high. The significant predictors of high prevalence of substance used were the male sex, age, and peers and roommate’s use of substance. There is a need for appropriate authorities to use the informed targeted intervention through the identified risk factors to stem the tide before it ravages our youth.
VL - 14
IS - 3
ER -
Ajayi, P. O., Amu, E. O., Solomon, O. O. (2026). Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. European Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(3), 34-44. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
Ajayi, P. O.; Amu, E. O.; Solomon, O. O. Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Eur. J. Prev. Med.2026, 14(3), 34-44. doi: 10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
Ajayi PO, Amu EO, Solomon OO. Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. Eur J Prev Med. 2026;14(3):34-44. doi: 10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
@article{10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11,
author = {Paul Oladapo Ajayi and Eyitope Oluseyi Amu and Oluremi Olayinka Solomon},
title = {Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria},
journal = {European Journal of Preventive Medicine},
volume = {14},
number = {3},
pages = {34-44},
doi = {10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11},
url = {https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11},
eprint = {https://article.sciencepublishinggroup.com/pdf/10.11648.j.ejpm.20261403.11},
abstract = {Substance use is a growing pandemic that is ravaging the youth at an alarming rate. The study aims to investigate the prevalence and determinants of substance use among youths in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. An institutional-based, cross-sectional study was conducted in Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, sampling a total of 480 undergraduate students. A pretested, semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire was adapted from the literatures. All data collected were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Multi-level data analysis was conducted with a clear progression from univariate, bivariate to multivariate analysis, with p-value set at PP 0.044), age (OR=14.11; 95% CI=1.45-133.88; P 0.022), and peers and roommates’ use of psychoactive substances (OR = 19.58: 95 CI = 4.95-77.50); P 0.000). The prevalence of substance use among the students in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State was high. The significant predictors of high prevalence of substance used were the male sex, age, and peers and roommate’s use of substance. There is a need for appropriate authorities to use the informed targeted intervention through the identified risk factors to stem the tide before it ravages our youth.},
year = {2026}
}
TY - JOUR
T1 - Prevalence and Determinants of Substance Use Among Youths in a Tertiary Institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria
AU - Paul Oladapo Ajayi
AU - Eyitope Oluseyi Amu
AU - Oluremi Olayinka Solomon
Y1 - 2026/06/26
PY - 2026
N1 - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
DO - 10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
T2 - European Journal of Preventive Medicine
JF - European Journal of Preventive Medicine
JO - European Journal of Preventive Medicine
SP - 34
EP - 44
PB - Science Publishing Group
SN - 2330-8230
UR - https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ejpm.20261403.11
AB - Substance use is a growing pandemic that is ravaging the youth at an alarming rate. The study aims to investigate the prevalence and determinants of substance use among youths in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State, Nigeria. An institutional-based, cross-sectional study was conducted in Federal Polytechnic Ado-Ekiti, sampling a total of 480 undergraduate students. A pretested, semi-structured, self-administered questionnaire was adapted from the literatures. All data collected were analyzed using SPSS version 25. Multi-level data analysis was conducted with a clear progression from univariate, bivariate to multivariate analysis, with p-value set at PP 0.044), age (OR=14.11; 95% CI=1.45-133.88; P 0.022), and peers and roommates’ use of psychoactive substances (OR = 19.58: 95 CI = 4.95-77.50); P 0.000). The prevalence of substance use among the students in a tertiary institution in Ekiti State was high. The significant predictors of high prevalence of substance used were the male sex, age, and peers and roommate’s use of substance. There is a need for appropriate authorities to use the informed targeted intervention through the identified risk factors to stem the tide before it ravages our youth.
VL - 14
IS - 3
ER -
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